BEMA Episode Link: 194: AD 300–500
Episode Length: 23:41
Published Date: Thu, 05 Nov 2020 01:00:00 -0800
Session 5
About this episode:

Marty Solomon and Brent Billings examine the fourth and fifth centuries and the period of the ecumenical councils of early Christendom.

AD 300–500 Presentation (PDF)

Discussion Video for BEMA 194

Transcript for BEMA 194

Notes

*Note: The following notes are handwritten by me, Adam, and I reserve the right to be wrong.

BEMA Episode 194: AD 300-500 - Study Notes

Title & Source Summary

Episode: 194 - AD 300-500 Hosts: Marty Solomon and Brent Billings Focus: The 4th and 5th centuries, the ecumenical councils of early Christendom, and the transformation of Christianity under Constantine

This episode examines a pivotal two-hundred-year period in Christian history when the faith transitioned from a persecuted movement to an imperial religion. The discussion covers Constantine’s conversion and legalization of Christianity, the rise of Christendom, and the four major ecumenical councils that established Christian orthodoxy. The hosts explore how the separation from Judaism and the influence of Gnostic and Hellenistic thought led to philosophical debates about Christ’s nature, ultimately shaping the theological framework that continues to define Christianity today.

Key Takeaways

  • Christendom Defined: The period from the 4th century to the French Revolution (roughly 1,400 years) when Christianity became an imperial, worldwide religion - what Marty calls “imperial Christianity”

  • Constantine’s Conversion: In the early 4th century, Constantine had a vision before a crucial battle and attributed his victory to the Christian God, fundamentally changing the relationship between Christianity and the Roman Empire

  • Legalization vs. State Religion: Constantine made Christianity legal (ending persecution), but it was later under Theodosius that Christianity became advantageous and effectively the imperial religion

  • The Gnostic Crisis Resurfaces: Once persecution ended and Christians had time to address theological questions, the influence of Gnostic ideas (spirit good, physical bad) created urgent debates about Jesus’s nature

  • Four Major Councils: Between AD 325-451, four ecumenical councils established orthodox teaching about Christ: his divinity (Nicea), humanity (Constantinople), singularity of personhood (Ephesus), and the hypostatic union - being 100% God and 100% man simultaneously (Chalcedon)

  • Loss of Jewish Framework: The hosts suggest these philosophical debates might not have been necessary if Christianity had maintained its connection to Jewish text, methodology, and understanding of relationship with God

  • Beginning of Decline: Marty views this period as “the beginning of a downhill slide” where orthodoxy became about affirming beliefs rather than living a particular way

Main Concepts & Theories

The Rise of Christendom

Christendom represents the era when Christianity and political power merged. For approximately 1,400 years, the Western world was dominated by Christian imperial power. This began in the 4th century and lasted until the French Revolution challenged this paradigm.

Key Context:

  • Christianity was the second-fastest-growing religion in the Roman Empire for two centuries
  • Mithraism (an offshoot of Zoroastrianism) was the fastest-growing religion
  • By Constantine’s time, over 80% of the Roman Empire identified as Christian
  • Constantine’s father, Chlorus, claimed to be Mithras-incarnate and his birthday was December 25 (the origin of the Christian celebration date)
Constantine’s Vision and Conversion

The traditional narrative describes Constantine facing impossible odds at a strategic bridge in Rome. According to his testimony, he had a vision of the Christian God showing him a shield with the Greek letters Chi (X) and Rho (P), understanding it to mean “In Christ, you will conquer.” After placing this Chi-Rho symbol on his soldiers’ shields, Constantine won the battle and credited the Christian God.

Historical Interpretations:

  1. Literal believers: The conversion was genuine and miraculous
  2. Political theory: Constantine was a political genius who recognized Christianity’s momentum and synchronized his father’s Mithraism with the growing Christian movement
  3. Middle ground: Some combination of genuine experience and political awareness
  4. Misinterpretation theory: Constantine had a real vision but misunderstood what Jesus was communicating

Significance: Constantine was the last emperor with singular control over the entire Roman Empire, making him uniquely positioned to convert the empire in “one shot.”

The Problem of Freedom from Persecution

While ending persecution sounds entirely positive, it created unexpected theological challenges:

  1. Time for debate: Christians no longer had to focus on survival and could address theological questions that had been “on the back burner”

  2. Influx of convenience converts: Many Gentiles flooded into the Church not out of genuine commitment but because it became “convenient, efficient, effective, and advantageous”

  3. Loss of the Didache framework: Early Christian teaching (like the Didache) required swearing off pagan ways and dying to old life through baptism. This rigorous approach was replaced by different questions and conversations dominated by philosophy

  4. Philosophy replacing Torah: The Greek philosophical paradigm (emphasis on logic, Hellenism, and intellectual precision) replaced the Jewish framework of relationship, narrative, and lived experience

The Four Major Ecumenical Councils
1. Council of Nicea (AD 325)

Topic: The divinity of Christ Ordered by: Constantine Primary Issue: Arianism - the belief that Christ is separate from God the Father and of a different substance Outcome: First draft of the Nicene Creed declaring Christ as “of one substance with the Father” Declared Heresy: Arianism

2. Council of Constantinople (AD 381)

Topic: The humanity of Christ Ordered by: Theodosius I Primary Issue: Apollinarianism - the belief that Christ was not truly human Outcome: Expanded the Nicene Creed to address Christ’s full humanity Declared Heresy: Apollinarian doctrine

3. Council of Ephesus (AD 431)

Topic: The singularity of Christ’s personhood Ordered by: Theodosius II Primary Issue: Nestorianism - the teaching that Christ was two distinct “persons,” existing as God in one person and man in another Outcome: Declared Christ was one person at all times; prohibited publishing teachings rivaling established orthodoxy Side Discussion: Addressed Pelagianism - rejected Pelagius’s denial of original sin and human depravity; adopted Augustinian theology affirming human depravity Declared Heresy: Nestorian teaching

4. Council of Chalcedon (AD 451)

Topic: The fullness of divinity and humanity in Christ Ordered by: Marcian (different from the earlier heretic Marcion) Primary Issue: Eutychian heresy - the belief that Christ was not completely God and completely man simultaneously Outcome: Established the doctrine of the “hypostatic union” - Christ is simultaneously 100% God and 100% man Declared Heresy: Eutychian teaching

Progressive Logic of the Councils:

  1. Is Christ God? Yes.
  2. Is Christ human? Yes.
  3. Is Christ two different persons or one person? One person.
  4. Is he 50% God and 50% man, or fully both? 100% God and 100% man simultaneously.
The Gnostic Crisis and Hellenistic Influence

Gnostic Framework:

  • Everything spiritual = good
  • Everything physical = not good

The Problem: In a Gnostic worldview, saying Jesus was truly a man (physical) feels dangerous and degrading. But denying his humanity is equally problematic for Christian faith.

Greek Philosophical Approach:

  • Emphasis on logic and rational precision
  • Philosophy degree holders asking questions the Bible wasn’t designed to answer
  • Intellectual framework replacing narrative and relational understanding
  • Focus on defining beliefs rather than living a way of life
The Loss of Jewish Foundations

The hosts argue that these councils and debates represent a fundamental shift in how Christianity understood itself:

What Was Lost:

  • Jewish backbone of truth and text
  • Methodology of binding and loosing (rabbinic interpretive practices)
  • 1,000 years of understanding relationship with God through Judaism
  • Focus on blessing all nations, tikkun olam (repairing the world), Kingdom of God, euangelion (good news in context)
  • The narrative of God’s great story

What Replaced It:

  • Philosophical debates about hypostatic unions
  • Orthodoxy defined by affirming correct beliefs rather than living a particular way
  • Ideas and philosophy prioritized over practice and relationship
  • Intellectual precision replacing lived experience

Key Question: Would these councils have been necessary if Christianity hadn’t lost touch with its Jewish text and methodology?

The Fall of Rome and Rise of the Byzantine Empire

The Roman Empire’s fall was not surprising - signs were evident even before Constantine:

Contributing Factors:

  • Original strength of the Empire had disappeared
  • Constant political flux and instability
  • Difficulty finding singular leaders to consolidate power
  • Continued splintering and fracturing of authority
  • Loss of vast territorial reach

Historical Parallel: Similar to when Herod the Great died and his kingdom was split into three parts, Rome experienced progressive division leading to its downfall.

Transition: The Roman Empire eventually became known as the Byzantine Empire, which continues the story in subsequent episodes.

Examples & Applications

The December 25th Connection

Constantine’s father Chlorus, who claimed to be Mithras-incarnate, had his birthday celebrated on December 25th. The Constantinian dynasty enacted an imperial advent celebrating this birth. This is the historical origin of the December 25th date for Christmas - not a biblical date but one inherited from Roman imperial practice related to Mithraism.

The Jerusalem Council Precedent

The concept of councils wasn’t invented in the 4th century. Acts 15 describes the Jerusalem Council where early church leaders gathered to make decisions about Gentile believers and circumcision. The medium of gathering for decision-making had biblical precedent, but the hosts argue it was “set up for a rougher road” once divorced from Jewish frameworks of interpretation.

The Two-Century Fast Growth

For two centuries, Christianity was the second-fastest-growing religion in a competitive religious marketplace. This growth happened despite (or perhaps because of) persecution. The movement’s appeal was strong enough to eventually represent 80% of the empire - a remarkable demographic shift that made Constantine’s decision politically astute, whether divinely inspired or not.

The Didache’s Baptismal Requirements

The Didache (early Christian teaching manual) required those taking on baptism to swear off their old Gentile, pagan way of life. Baptism meant dying to paganism and walking into a “brand new family, this Jewish walk.” This rigorous conversion process contrasts sharply with the later influx of nominal Christians joining for social and political advantages.

Philosophy Degree Analogy

Marty uses the contemporary question “What are you going to do with that degree?” regarding philosophy majors to illustrate how Greek philosophical training shaped early Christian debates. These highly educated Gentile converts brought their philosophical tools to questions the biblical text wasn’t designed to answer in those terms.

Fad Christianity Among Roman Elite

Professor Lisa Vitel’s research reveals Christianity became a “fad among the Roman elite” - a means to position oneself higher in the imperial hierarchy. This cultural Christianity differs vastly from the costly discipleship of the persecution era.

Potential Areas for Further Exploration

Constantine’s True Motivations
  • Deeper study of primary sources: Lactantius versus Eusebius accounts
  • Archaeological evidence of Constantine’s religious practices
  • Analysis of Constantine’s political decisions beyond religion
  • The extent to which Constantine understood Christian theology
  • His relationship to both Mithraism (through his father) and Christianity
The Creeds and Their Development
  • Close reading of the Nicene Creed’s evolution from 325 to 381
  • How the creeds have been used throughout church history
  • Eastern Orthodox versus Western Catholic understanding of the creeds
  • The role of creeds in Protestant reformation
  • Contemporary debates about creedal authority
Gnostic Influence on Early Christianity
  • The specific Gnostic texts and teachers influencing 4th-5th century debates
  • Why Gnostic ideas were so appealing to Gentile converts
  • The relationship between Platonic philosophy and Gnostic thought
  • How the church distinguished legitimate mystery from Gnostic heresy
  • Modern expressions of Gnostic-influenced Christianity
The Seven Ecumenical Councils
  • The three councils not covered in detail in this episode
  • Regional variations in accepting council decisions
  • The Great Schism between East and West in 1054
  • How different Christian traditions today relate to these councils
  • The political dynamics within each council
Jewish-Christian Relations in This Period
  • What was happening in Judaism during the 4th-5th centuries
  • Were there any attempts at reconciliation or dialogue
  • How synagogue communities viewed Christianity’s transformation
  • The development of distinct Jewish identity in response to Christian imperialism
  • The impact of Christian political power on Jewish communities
Theological Alternatives
  • What would Christian theology look like if it had maintained Jewish frameworks
  • How Jewish understanding of messiah differs from the hypostatic union
  • Whether the questions the councils addressed could be answered differently
  • Modern attempts to reconnect Christianity with its Jewish roots
  • Messianic Jewish perspectives on these historical developments
The Fall of Rome
  • Detailed chronology of Rome’s decline from Constantine to the final fall
  • The role Christianity played in either hastening or delaying Rome’s fall
  • How the barbarian invasions affected Christian theology
  • The preservation of Christian texts and traditions during this transition
  • The Byzantine Empire’s distinct development
Augustinian Theology
  • Augustine’s background and conversion
  • His debates with Pelagius in detail
  • The long-term impact of Augustinian thought on Western Christianity
  • How original sin and human depravity shaped subsequent theology
  • Alternative views that were rejected in favor of Augustine
The Didache and Early Christian Practice
  • Complete study of the Didache’s teachings
  • How early Christian liturgy and practice evolved
  • The transition from Jewish-influenced worship to Hellenistic forms
  • What was lost and gained in this transition
  • Whether any communities maintained the Didache’s approach
Marty’s Hope for Recovery
  • What contemporary movements might represent recovery from this “downhill slide”
  • Modern attempts to recapture first-century Christian practice
  • The role of historical awareness in shaping future Christian identity
  • Whether the separation from Judaism is reversible or should be
  • What “recovery” might look like in the 21st century

Comprehension Questions

  1. What is the difference between Constantine legalizing Christianity and Theodosius making it the imperial religion, and why does this distinction matter for understanding the transformation of the Christian movement?

  2. How did the Gnostic crisis (valuing spirit over physical matter) create specific challenges for early Christians trying to articulate the nature of Jesus Christ, and why did these challenges intensify once persecution ended?

  3. Trace the logical progression of the four major ecumenical councils: What question did each council address, and how did each answer build upon the previous council’s declaration?

  4. According to the hosts, what Jewish frameworks and practices were lost when Christianity became predominantly Gentile, and how might maintaining those frameworks have prevented or changed the need for the ecumenical councils?

  5. Marty describes this period as “the beginning of a downhill slide that I’m not sure we have ever recovered from.” What specifically does he mean by this, and what shift occurred in how orthodoxy was understood (beliefs versus way of life)?

Summary

BEMA Episode 194 covers a watershed moment in Christian history - the two centuries when Christianity transformed from a persecuted Jewish sect into an imperial Gentile religion. Constantine’s conversion and legalization of Christianity in the early 4th century ended persecution but created new challenges. Without the threat of death, theological questions that had been postponed now demanded answers, but the predominantly Gentile church approached them through Greek philosophy rather than Jewish interpretive methods.

The four major ecumenical councils (Nicea, Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon) systematically addressed Christ’s nature: establishing his divinity, humanity, singularity of person, and finally the hypostatic union (100% God and 100% man simultaneously). While these theological clarifications matter significantly, Marty and Brent suggest the church lost something essential in the process. Orthodoxy became about affirming correct beliefs rather than living a particular way, and the grand narrative of blessing nations and repairing the world gave way to philosophical debates about substance and personhood.

The hosts propose that this shift - from Jewish relational and narrative framework to Greek philosophical precision - represents a fundamental break that Christianity has never fully recovered from. The influx of convenience converts, the loss of practices like those outlined in the Didache, and the dominance of Hellenistic thought over Torah-based understanding created a version of Christianity increasingly disconnected from its roots. As Rome fell and became the Byzantine Empire, this transformed Christianity became the foundation for 1,400 years of Christendom - a period the hosts will continue examining while maintaining hope for eventual recovery.

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